Eden, London, March 2023
Classicism has been ever-present in Western society, as a touchstone of high art. Characterised by harmony, restraint, and an explicit appeal to the intellect, it generally denotes the emulation of Graeco-Roman expression in its many forms. Perhaps the most celebrated period of classical revival is the Italian Renaissance. Spanning from the 14th-17th century, its boasts some of the West’s most distinguished cultural achievements across many domains.
Origins
Education
Prior to the fall of Byzantium, European identification with antiquity was founded on a history of Christendom from the conversion of Constantine. However, increasing trade with Islamic cultures saw the transmission of new knowledge regarding Europe’s cultural heritage. This began to inform the politically active citizen of Medieval Italy, where the rise of city states necessitated aptitude in law, politics, and oration. In this context, an alternative approach to education developed: the studia humanitatis, which taught grammar, rhetoric, and moral philosophy as guides to civic duties. As a result, many men of the Renaissance were schooled with the belief that intellectual pursuits should be grounded in the Classics.
The Medici
Synonymous with the Italian Renaissance were the Medici family. Even though they were not the official rulers of the city-state, they dominated Florentine culture for nearly 300 years. Their rise can be credited to ambitious and industrious family members, as well as involvement in the influential merchant guild. The Medici were keen assert that they were both progressive and rooted in tradition. The entire lineage were great patrons of Classical art, which signalled their affinity with contemporary developments as well as with antiquarian authority.
In Literature & Philosophy
Humanism & Christianity
The aspect of the Renaissance which most distinguished it from the Middle Ages was Humanism. The promotion of human rationality stemmed from Classical study, especially the rediscovery of texts such as ad Atticum by Petrarch in 1345. It was under the Italian philosopher, Latin scholar, and poet, that the spirit of Renaissance really took shape. For example, his examination of the right balance between the active and contemplative life in De vita solitaria, greatly influenced nascent classical Humanism. Secretum meum was also revolutionary for its argument that secular endeavours did not necessarily prohibit an authentic connection to G-d, emphasising reason over the fideism of the Middle Ages. Secretum can also be seen as a reconciliation between his faith, his Renaissance humanism and love of antiquity. Interestingly, he cites Classical sources more often than scripture, with the belief that they supported the Christian message. Another text which advocated for the continuity between Classical culture and Christian values was De viris illustribus. A clear parallel to Plutarch’s Lives, it comprises of biographies of antiquity’s heroes which include everyone from Romulus to Adam.
Poetry
In spite of his contributions to philosophy, historians often refer to the Renaissance as starting when Petrarch was crowned Poet Laureate in 1341. The work which Petrarch held in highest regard was his epic Africa; a Latin composition on the Second Punic War. Yet his vernacular poems, such as those in his collection Rime Sparse, attained greater renown, and would later be used to help construct modern Italian. He also helped to popularise the sonnet, as an early practitioner of the form, and consequently later Renaissance poets named the Petrarchan sonnet in his honour.
Despite this, perhaps the more famous Italian poet, who was also caught between antiquity and modernity, is Dante Alighieri. Much like Virgil is his guide into the underworld, classical poetry was a constant inspiration for his Divine Comedy. However, Dante’s tri-part epic is also a Christian allegory of the self, which anoints modern heroes, and is written in vernacular. In this way he captures the essence of Renaissance thought and literature; a simultaneous appraisal of antiquity and break from tradition. Other contemporary Italian authors include Niccolò Machiavelli, Giovanni Boccaccio, and Leon Battista Alberti.
In Opera & Theatre
Opera can find its roots in the endeavours of the Florentine Camerata, which, under the patronage of Count Giovanni de' Bardi, formed to guide trends in music and drama. One of the most prominent members was Vincenzo Galilei, father of Galileo. His Dialogo intorno alla musica antica e moderna argues for the necessity of retrospection in the reformation of music. In particular, he believed that he could replicate the experience of a Greek Tragedy by combining monody with a play, thus paving the way for opera. The first opera, Euridice, was staged in 1600 to celebrate the wedding of Maria De Medici to King Henry IV, as well as to impress the French and other Signoria. Similarly, other influential families started commissioning operas as a means of flaunting their affluence, on occasions such as weddings, coronations, and births. Likewise, neoclassical playwrights began to divide works into Tragedy and Comedy, as well as utilise the Classical unities of time, place, and action, as outlined in Aristotle’s Poetics.
In Architecture
Although Renaissance classicism was initially a literary movement, it also spread to the other arts. An explicit return to architectural techniques associated with antiquity, arose from increasing observance of ancient ruins, but also the writings of Vitruvius. Much like their Graeco-Roman antecedents, the work of Renaissance architects expressed a desire for symmetry and order, which contrasted with the complexity of the predominant Gothic style. Hence overtime, Italy experienced one of its most noticeable shifts, the transition from Gothic to Classical architecture. This can be seen in the transition from the Gothic pointed arch to the Romanesque Renaissance arch. Additionally, Renaissance architecture began to adopt the Classical order of columns, the barrel vault, and the Roman dome.
Early Renaissance
Early Renaissance architecture was particularly known for its use of classical facades in conjunction with Gothic elements. One such example is The Santa Maria Novella cathedral in Florence. Whilst it incorporates the harsher rudiments of Gothic architecture, Leon Battisti Alberti later added a façade with a pointed pediment roof and Roman arches.The use of green is intriguing, as it may be a homage to antiquities’ painters or an expression of architectural vernacular, since the combination of green and white was common in Medieval Tuscan architecture.
High Renaissance
Throughout the High Renaissance, architecture became more traditionally classical and ornate. Notably, in 1502, Donatello designed Rome’s Tempietto with Doric pillars, triglyphical interiors, and Romanesque domes, arches, and statues. St. Peter's Basilica in Rome is an analogous masterpiece. Other famous architects include Raphael and Michelangelo.
The Italian Renaissance was also significant for its propagation of illustrated architectural texts, which assisted the spread of ideas across Europe. Often, the Renaissance style was mixed with the local, and by the 17th century, it was eventually superseded by the highly decorative Baroque style.
In Art
Whilst the Italian rebirth of Classicism occurred across many creative realms, as it stands, the visual arts remain to be the most iconic representation of the Renaissance. Although few Graeco-Roman paintings had been discovered, Classical mythology and three-dimensional artifacts endowed a plethora of classical motifs for rising artists to cite or adapt.
Mythology
Although Catholicism remained a prominent theme, there was also rise in the use of mythological narratives in Early Renaissance artwork. Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus (1484-1486) depicts her birth from sea as she is blown towards one of the Horai by the west wind Zephyr, and nymph Chloris. Like Primavera, the Birth of Venus symbolises harmonious interaction between ideas and nature, as well as the spirit and matter. The inspiration for the painting could have been drawn from several sources, such as the Homeric Hymn of the same name, published in 1488, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and Neo-Platonist views on beauty. The pose adopted by Venus also mirrors that of the famous 'Medici Venus,' evidencing Botticelli’s clear strive to reach artistic perfection that could rival classical antiquity.
Contrapposto
Works such as the ‘Medici Venus’ and ‘Apollo Belvedere,’ were also the inspiration of many a Renaissance sculptor. Like, the Graeco-Romans, they began to reject emotionalism in favour of form and detail, and imbibed models of Classical statuary.
For example, Michelangelo’s David (1504) utilises contrapposto to give an impression of movement and vitality. The weight placed on one leg makes his body tilt in an S-shape, conveying not only strength but also idealised natural posture.
Chiaroscuro
Another Classical technique which was revived to evoke a sense of realism was chiaroscuro, the contrast between light and dark. It can be traced back to the Greek artist Apollodorus Skiagraphos, who hatched shadows to indicate volume. None of his works survived, but examples of his skiagraphies can be seen in other Hellenistic artworks like the “Stag Hunt,” a fourth century BCE carpet mosaic.
The Renaissance painting which is most famous for its realism is Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. By naturally depicting the interplay of light and shadow through chiaroscuro, the whole composition gains a three-dimensionality, enabling him to create a lifelike portrayal of a contemporary female figure. Additionally, his use of an aerial perspective, and sfumato, a technique in which the artist softens and blurs the edges, centres the viewer’s focus on the human. In this way, Classical artistry and philosophy converged to create one of the most iconic humanist paintings, and indeed one of the most renowned paintings in the world.
Fresco
In addition to traditional works on canvas, Renaissance artists popularized another Classical painting technique: the fresco. Buon frescoes are known to have been practised as early as 2000 BCE in Crete, evidenced works such as "The Toreador". They were also common in Greek and Roman art, for example in Herculaneum. Created by applying paint onto wet plaster, they often adorn large surfaces. As such, frescos reached their zenith during the Renaissance, when they were used for religious paintings in cathedrals and churches.
A fresco famous for its Classical themes is Raphael's School of Athens, found on the walls of the Vatican's papal apartments. It is one of four wall frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura, which each represent a branch of knowledge—theology, justice, literature, and philosophy.
The School of Athens juxtaposes two currents of philosophy through the central figures of Plato and Aristotle. On the right, Plato points towards the sky, representing his Theory of Forms, which argues in favour of the spiritual realm over the physical. Conversely, Aristotle gestures to the ground, indicative of his belief that knowledge comes from empiricism. Raphael even went as far as to dress them in reversed colours, but despite their differences, both are united in seeking the path to knowledge, symbolised by the staircase they stand on.
Conclusion
Ultimately, the works of Renaissance writers and artists rivalled, rather than replicated, the achievements of antiquity, adding an exceptional chapter to the history of Classicism.
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