Perspectives on the Divine: Greek Views of the Nature of the Gods

Lauren

The ancient Greek world was deeply enmeshed in religious tradition - from civic rituals to personal devotion. However, perspectives on the gods were far from monolithic. In particular, the growth of philosophical inquiry led to an increasingly critical examination of the traditional portrayals of the gods. 

The Gods of Homer

During the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the dominant images of the gods came from the works of Homer. These gods were anthropomorphic in appearance and character. Depictions as statues and pottery, and epithets such as “grey-eyed Athene” and “golden-haired Apollo” all signal that the gods were distinctly human-like in form. The gods were also capricious, often governed by human emotions. They showed favouritism, aiding their chosen mortals and punishing those they disliked  - such as Poseidon’s relentless pursuit of vengeance against Odysseus for having blinded his son Polyphemus. Overall, the gods’ favouritism seems to be based on human-like biases rather than consistent moral principles. 

Xenophanes and the Critique of Anthropomorphism 

Xenophanes famously derided the depictions of the gods found in Homer and Hesiod as false conceptions of the divine that resulted from the human habit to anthropomorphise deities. For instance, he satirically remarked that if animals had gods, they would resemble their own kind—horses would depict their gods as horses, and oxen as oxen. Xenophanes also criticised the moral behaviour of the gods as presented in Homeric epic, claiming: "Homer and Hesiod have attributed to the gods all things that are shameful and a reproach among mankind: theft, adultery, and mutual deception". Xenophanes suggested that the divine must be beyond human attributes and morally consistent. His vision of a singular, all-powerful deity starkly contrasted with the capricious and quarrelsome Olympians.

Socrates and Impiety 

In Plato’s Euthyphro, Socrates famously asks whether something is pious because the gods love it, or whether the gods love it because it is pious. This dilemma undermines the notion that morality is simply dictated by the gods, instead implying that ethical principles exist independently of the whims of divine will. Charged with impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens, Socrates was accused of failing to honour the gods of the city. Although perhaps partly influenced by his political circle and association with controversial figures such as Critias and Alcibiades, his execution in 399 BCE illustrates the tension between emerging philosophical thought and traditional religious structures in Athens.

Depictions of the Gods in Theatre and in Historical Accounts

The god Dionysus is the central figure in Aristophanes’ comedy Frogs. Throughout the first half of the play, Dionysus is depicted as a buffoonish character - engaging in nonsensical jokes with his slave Xanthias and introducing himself to the audience under the ridiculous name of “Dionysus, son of the wine-jar”. Dionysus is also presented as fearful and cowardly, even soiling himself out of fear when he is threatened by Aeacus. Despite this irreverent depiction, Aristophanes still shows Dionysus to be an important figure - by the comedy’s conclusion, Dionysus takes on the role of judge in a contest between Aeschylus and Euripides, showing his authority over drama and literary tradition. 

4^th century red-figure vase depicting an actor dressed as Xanthias beside a statuette of Heracles.

In a more serious critique, Thucydides’ account of the plague in Athens presents a tragic reflection on religious faith. He describes how the plague led to widespread disillusionment—prayers and sacrifices failed to stop the disease, leading many Athenians to lose faith in the gods -- emphasising the role of human action and natural causes over divine intervention. Historian W. Robert Connor argues that Thucydides’ work represents “a move towards a more secular and rational analysis of historical events, rejecting the traditional role of divine will as an explanatory mechanism”.

In summary, Greek perspectives on the gods were never static; they evolved alongside intellectual, social, and political changes. This engagement with the divine remains one of the defining features of Greek thought, influencing theological and philosophical debate for centuries to come.

Sources: Xenophanes, Fragments https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/xenophanes/ Plato, Euthyphro 10a https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates/The-charge-of-impiety Aristophanes, Frogs Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War Book 2 W Robert Connor, Thucydides