Greeks and Barbarians: Frenemies of the ancient world

Myla

Barbarians were a hot topic among writers of the ancient world commonly discussed among historians like Herodotus, Thyucidides and even Aristotle. The ancient Greeks viewed barbarians —a term derived from "βαρβαρος" meaning those who spoke unintelligibly (non-Greek speaking) with a lens of condescension, curiosity, and hostility.

One of the ways which Greeks interpreted barbarians was through their (the Greek) linguistic and cultural ‘superiority’, which essentially coined the term ‘βαρβαρος’. Ηerodotus was a historian and travel writer of sorts and he often contrasts Persian customs with Greek ideals:

Royal Power – In ‘Histories’, Herodotus describes how Persians were ruled by an absolute king, though not in a condescending manner. He contrasts this with Greek democracy and personal freedom and in a sense, he imposes some alienation by marking differences between the inheritance of power in Greek and ‘barbaric’ cultures.  The contrast between Greek democracy and the Persian monarchy was frequently emphasized in political rhetoric, especially during the Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BCE). The Greeks consolidated their lens on barbarians, looking down on them through their perceived political superiority. They often viewed barbarians as people who lacked self-governance (whether democracy, oligarchy or tyranny); this is a stark contrast to the ubiquitous discussions of democracy in Athens, thus linking foreigners like the Persians with despotism. Aristotle himself viewed barbarians as "natural slaves" because they supposedly lacked the rationality, order and high-level thinking necessary for self-rule.

Luxury and Excess -  Herodotus notes how Persian elites indulged in elaborate feasts, soft clothing, and perfumes. This behaviour was later associated with the Roman aristocracy and ‘noblesse’ which evidently, the Greeks viewed with disdain, associating this with weakness and decadence.  

Greek Ionian Tribute bearers in relief sculpture from the Persian Apadana royal palace at Persepolis

Religious Practices – Herodotus placed a particular emphasis on the variety of religious customs outside of the Greek sphere of influence. This is particularly striking as religion and their godly beliefs are a central part to Greek culture, infiltrating the majority of Greek literature, naming of the planets (although today they are named after the Roman gods) and ceremonies. Unlike the Greeks, who built temples for their gods, Persians worshipped in the open air, which is particularly striking to the Greek cohort.

Religious Rituals- He notes that Egyptians were highly religious and performed numerous purification rites that the Greeks would find excessive. This is a stark contrast to the Persians who did very minimal religious ceremonies. Why did the Greeks have such double standards? Anything to hate on barbarians?

Gender Roles - He describes how Egyptian women participated in trade while men stayed home weaving—completely opposite to Greek societal roles.

Animal Worship - Greeks respected some animals (like horses), but Herodotus was fascinated by the Egyptians' reverence for cats, crocodiles, and bulls (such as the sacred Apis Bull). He even recounts the strangeness of how Egyptians would shave their eyebrows when a pet cat died.

Funeral Practices - While Greeks burned their dead, Egyptians practiced mummification, which Herodotus describes in detail, showing both fascination and horror. Though this does not seem to paint barbarians as uncivilised, it reveals Herodotus’ priorities as a travel writer and his neutral opinion on outsiders but seems to heavily note their differences rather than similarities.

Sometimes the Greeks did admire certain Barbarians, albeit rarely. Despite the general disdain, Greeks admired aspects of certain barbarian cultures and questioned faults in their own society:

• Some Greek philosophers, like the Cynics and Stoics, challenged Greek superiority by promoting universal humanity: barbarians are equals.

• During the Hellenistic period (after Alexander the Great’s conquests), Greek attitudes toward barbarians softened to an extent. Greek culture spread across Asia and Egypt, blending with local traditions, leading to a more modernised and open minded outlook. The barbarian label became less about language and more about perceived level of civilization.

  

  Hellenistic Mosaic from the Seleucid (Greek) palace at Ai Khanoum in Eastern Afghanistan

Herodotus’ accounts of foreign customs serve multiple purposes in revealing the Greek perception of Barbarians, yet they also highlight Greek ethnocentrism: foreign cultures are often presented as a sort of liminal otherness or rooted from something quite strange. These barbaric cultures contrast Greek values in many descriptions and are meant to reinforce Greek ideals of moderation, democracy, and rationality. Though this article has deviated from the main theme of ‘Perspective’ and into an appreciation of Herodotus, his work remains undeniably one of the richest sources of information on how the Greeks viewed the outside world, blending history, myth, and cultural commentary.

LITTLE NUGGET OF CONTEXT: Herodotus is often called the "Father of History," and arguably provided one of the most detailed accounts of foreign peoples in his ‘Histories’ in the 5^th century BCE (though Thucydides would strongly disagree). Born in the Ionian Isles of the Greek archipelago, he was conveniently brought up on the edges of the Greek-speaking world where there was a melting pot of Greek and ‘barbaric’ influence. This is particularly useful into giving a relatively widened perspective on barbaric and Greek culture. Though, while he did try to document customs objectively, he oftentimes emphasized their strangeness from a Greek perspective, portraying them as exotic, paradoxical, or even humorous.

Herodotus devotes a large portion of ‘Histories’ (Book II) to Egypt and describes their customs as entirely opposite to Greek norms. While he clearly admired Egyptian customs and their impressive way of life and more modern technological advances, he did not distinguish Egyptians and the Phoenicians apart, perhaps a sign of ignorance on his part.